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The risk of epilepsy among individuals with intellectual disability (ID) is approximately ten times that of the general population. From a cohort of >5,000 families affected by neurodevelopmental disorders, we identified six consanguineous families harboring homozygous inactivating variants in MBOAT7, encoding lysophosphatidylinositol acyltransferase (LPIAT1). Subjects presented with ID frequently accompanied by epilepsy and autistic features. LPIAT1 is a membrane-bound phospholipid-remodeling enzyme that transfers arachidonic acid (AA) to lysophosphatidylinositol to produce AA-containing phosphatidylinositol. This study suggests a role for AA-containing phosphatidylinositols in the development of ID accompanied by epilepsy and autistic features.

Purpose: To examine the hypothesis that vascular-targeted photodynamic therapy (VTP) with WST11 and clinically relevant parameters can be used to ablate target tissues in a non-tumor-bearing large-animal model while selectively sparing blood vessels and collagen. Materials and Methods: By using an institutional animal care and use committee-approved protocol, 68 ablations were performed in the kidneys (cortex and medulla) and livers of 27 adult pigs. Posttreatment evaluation was conducted with contrast material-enhanced computed tomography in the live animals at 24 hours. Immunohistochemistry was evaluated and histologic examination with hematoxylineosin staining was performed at 4 hours, 24 hours, and 7 days. Intravenous infusion of WST11 (4 mg per kilogram of body weight) was followed by using near-infrared illumination (753 nm for 20 minutes) through optical fibers prepositioned in target tissues by using a fixed template. Treated areas were scanned, measured, and statistically analyzed by using the Student t test and two-way analysis of variance. Results: Focal WST11 VTP treatment in the liver and kidney by using a single optical fiber resulted in well-demarcated cylindrical zones of nonthermal necrosis concentrically oriented around the light-emitting diffuser, with no intervening viable parenchymal cells. The radius of ablated tissue increased from approximately 5 mm at 150 mW to approximately 7 mm at 415 mW (P,< .01). Illumination through fiber triads at 1-cm separation resulted in confluent homogeneous necrosis. Patterns of acute injury within 24 hours were consistent with microcirculatory flow arrest and collagen preservation (demonstrated with trichrome staining). In the peripheral ablation zone, blood vessels at least 40 mm in diameter were selectively preserved and remained functional at 7 days. Ablated tissues exhibited progressive fibrosis and chronic inflammatory cell infiltrates. No histologic changes consistent with thermal injury were observed in blood vessels or collagen. The renal hilum and collecting system did not show treatment effect, despite treatment proximity. Conclusion: WST11 VTP induces nonthermal tissue ablation in target tissue while preserving critical organ structures and bystander blood vessels within solid organs. (C) RSNA, 2016

Lysosomes, the degradative organelles of the endocytic and autophagic pathways, function at an acidic pH. Lysosomes are acidified by the proton-pumping vacuolar ATPase (V-ATPase), but the molecular processes that set the organelle's pH are not completely understood. In particular, pH-sensitive signaling enzymes that can regulate lysosomal acidification in steady-state physiological conditions have yet to be identified. Soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC) is a widely expressed source of cAMP that serves as a physiological pH sensor in cells. For example, in proton-secreting epithelial cells, sAC is responsible for pH-dependent translocation of V-ATPase to the luminal surface. Here we show genetically and pharmacologically that sAC is also essential for lysosomal acidification. In the absence of sAC, V-ATPase does not properly localize to lysosomes, lysosomes fail to fully acidify, lysosomal degradative capacity is diminished, and autophagolysosomes accumulate.

Environmental factors, such as acidic pH, facilitate the assembly of a-synuclein (a-Syn) in aggregates, but the impact of pH on the very first step of a-Syn aggregation remains elusive. Recently, we developed a single-molecule approach that enabled us to measure directly the stability of a-Syn dimers. Unlabeled a-Syn monomers were immobilized on a substrate, and fluorophore-labeled monomers were added to the solution to allow them to form dimers with immobilized a-Syn monomers. The dimer lifetimes were measured directly from the fluorescence bursts on the time trajectories. Herein, we applied the single-molecule tethered approach for probing of intermolecular interaction to characterize the effect of acidic pH on the lifetimes of a-Syn dimers. The experiments were performed at pH 5 and 7 for wild-type a-Syn and for two mutants containing familial type mutations E46K and A53T. We demonstrate that a decrease of pH resulted in more than threefold increase in the a-Syn dimers lifetimes with some variability between the a-Syn species. We hypothesize that the stabilization effect is explained by neutralization of residues 96-140 of a-Syn and this electrostatic effect facilitates the association of the two monomers. Given that dimerization is the first step of a-Syn aggregation, we posit that the electrostatic effect thereby contributes to accelerating a-Syn aggregation at acidic pH. (C) 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Combined immunodeficiency (CID) refers to inborn errors of human T cells that also affect B cells because of the T cell deficit or an additional B cell-intrinsic deficit. In this study, we report six patients from three unrelated families with biallelic loss-of-function mutations in RLTPR, the mouse orthologue of which is essential for CD28 signaling. The patients have cutaneous and pulmonary allergy, as well as a variety of bacterial and fungal infectious diseases, including invasive tuberculosis and mucocutaneous candidiasis. Proportions of circulating regulatory T cells and memory CD4(+) T cells are reduced. Their CD4(+) T cells do not respond to CD28 stimulation. Their CD4(+) T cells exhibit a "Th2" cell bias ex vivo and when cultured in vitro, contrasting with the paucity of "Th1," "Th17," and T follicular helper cells. The patients also display few memory B cells and poor antibody responses. This B cell phenotype does not result solely from the T cell deficiency, as the patients' B cells fail to activate NF-kappa B upon B cell receptor (BCR) stimulation. Human RLTPR deficiency is a CID affecting at least the CD28-responsive pathway in T cells and the BCR-responsive pathway in B cells.

HIV-1 vaccine design is informed by structural studies elucidating mechanisms by which broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs) recognize and/or accommodate N-glycans on the trimeric envelope glycoprotein (Env). Variability in high-mannose and complex-type Env glycoforms leads to heterogeneity that usually precludes visualization of the native glycan shield. We present 3.5-angstrom- and 3.9-angstrom-resolution crystal structures of the HIV-1 Env trimer with fully processed and native glycosylation, revealing a glycan shield of high-mannose and complex-type N-glycans, which we used to define complete epitopes of two bNAbs. Env trimer was complexed with 10-1074 (against the V3-loop) and IOMA, a new CD4-binding site (CD4bs) antibody. Although IOMA derives from VH1-2*02, the germline gene of CD4bs-targeting VRC01-class bNAbs, its light chain lacks the short CDRL3 that defines VRC01-class bNAbs. Thus IOMA resembles 8ANC131-class/VH1-46 derived CD4bs bNAbs, which have normal-length CDRL3s. The existence of bNAbs that combine features of VRC01-class and 8ANC131-class antibodies has implications for immunization strategies targeting VRC01-like bNAbs.

Bin/Amphiphysin/Rvs (BAR) domain proteins control the curvature of lipid membranes in endocytosis, trafficking, cell motility, the formation of complex subcellular structures, and many other cellular phenomena. They form 3D assemblies that act as molecular scaffolds to reshape the membrane and alter its mechanical properties. It is unknown, however, how a protein scaffold forms and how BAR domains interact in these assemblies at protein densities relevant for a cell. In this work, we use various experimental, theoretical, and simulation approaches to explore how BAR proteins organize to form a scaffold on a membrane nanotube. By combining quantitative microscopy with analytical modeling, we demonstrate that a highly curving BAR protein endophilin nucleates its scaffolds at the ends of a membrane tube, contrary to a weaker curving protein centaurin, which binds evenly along the tube's length. Ourwork implies that the nature of local protein-membrane interactions can affect the specific localization of proteins on membrane-remodeling sites. Furthermore, we show that amphipathic helices are dispensable in forming protein scaffolds. Finally, we explore a possible molecular structure of a BAR-domain scaffold using coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations. Together with fluorescence microscopy, the simulations show that proteins need only to cover 30-40% of a tube's surface to form a rigid assembly. Our work provides mechanical and structural insights into the way BAR proteins may sculpt the membrane as a high-order cooperative assembly in important biological processes.

Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is the most common heritable cause of intellectual disability and a leading genetic form of autism. The Fmr1 KO mouse, a model of FXS, exhibits elevated translation in the hippocampus and the cortex. ERK (extracellular signal-regulated kinase) and mTOR (mechanistic target of rapamycin) signaling regulate protein synthesis by activating downstream targets critical to translation initiation and elongation and are known to contribute to hippocampal defects in fragile X. Here we show that the effect of loss of fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP) on these pathways is brain region specific. In contrast to the hippocampus, ERK (but not mTOR) signaling is elevated in the neocortex of fragile X mice. Phosphorylation of ribosomal protein S6, typically a downstream target of mTOR, is elevated in the neocortex, despite normal mTOR activity. This is significant in that S6 phosphorylation facilitates translation, correlates with neuronal activation, and is altered in neurodevelopmental disorders. We show that in fragile X mice, S6 is regulated by ERK via the "alternative" S6 kinase p90-ribosomal S6 kinase (RSK), as evidenced by the site of elevated phosphorylation and the finding that ERK inhibition corrects elevated RSK and S6 activity. These findings indicate that signaling networks are altered in the neocortex of fragile X mice such that S6 phosphorylation receives aberrant input from ERK/RSK. Importantly, an RSK inhibitor reduces susceptibility to audiogenic seizures in fragile X mice. Our findings identify RSK as a therapeutic target for fragile X and suggest the therapeutic potential of drugs for the treatment of FXS may vary in a brain-region-specific manner.

Dysplastic nevi (DNs), also known as Clark's nevi or atypical moles, are distinguished from common melanocytic nevi by variegation in pigmentation and clinical appearance, as well as differences in tissue patterning. However, cellular and molecular differences between DNs and common melanocytic nevi are not completely understood. Using cDNA microarray, quantitative RT-PCR, and immunohistochemistry, we molecularly characterized DNs and analyzed the difference between DNs and common melanocytic nevi. A total of 111 probesets (91 annotated genes, fold change >2.0 and false discovery rate < 0.25) were differentially expressed between the two lesions. An unexpected finding in DNs was altered differentiation and activation of epidermal keratinocytes with increased expression of hair follicle-related molecules (keratin 25, trichohyalin, ribonuclease, RNase A family, 7) and inflammation-related molecules (S100A7, S100A8) at both genomic and protein levels. The immune microenvironment of DNs was characterized by an increase of T helper type 1 (IFN gamma) and T helper type 2 (IL13) cytokines as well as an upregulation of oncostatin M and CXCL1. DUSP3, which regulates cellular senescence, was identified as one of the disease discriminative genes between DNs and common melanocytic nevi by three independent statistical approaches and its altered expression was confirmed by immunohistochemistry. The molecular and cellular changes in which the epidermal-melanin unit undergoes follicular differentiation as well as upregulation of defined cytokines could drive complex immune, epidermal, and pigmentary alterations.